Article Review: "The End of Muslim Sicily: A Poetics of Fitna" by Nicola Carpentieri

The muqarnas in the Palatine Chapel, that captures art and culture of Sicily during the end of Muslim rule and start of Norman rule. Photo by blog author.

Summary: 

Nicola Carpentieri uses the poetry of two Sicilian poets, al-Tamīmī and Ibn Ḥamdīs, to share an argument that the end of Muslim rule in Sicily meets the description of a fitna that resulted Norman conquest rather than the traditional description from Arabic sources that focuses on the Norman’s actions.. Through poetry, Carpentieri uses the poets’ internal descriptions of their own history to show how the unraveling of the Muslim community (umma) was an affront to both power and religion. This is steeped in an understanding of the history of Islam, how initial divisions early in the establishment of Islam were understood, and how people then related future conflict to those events. While Sicily’s conflict was not the result of differences in the branches of Islam (although that was present in some ways), Carpentieri argues, based on the poetic record, that it was experienced by those involved as a fracturing of the religious community that opened up the ability for the Normans to take power.

Key Quotes, Information, or Chapter:

- “Muslim presence on the island would endure for five centuries into the Norman, Hohenstaufen, and Angevin periods.”

- “little attention has been paid to poetic narratives about the end of Muslim Sicily. This [paper] is concerned with two such narratives, composed by the obscure poet Abū Muḥammad Qāsim ibnʿAbd Allah al-Tamīmī and his better-known colleague Ibn Ḥamdīs.”

- “Through their verses, the two poets sought to enshrine the loss of Sicily in the lore of the Arabian ode and the collective experience of turmoil within the Muslim umma (community).”

- fitna - commonly used as a reference to a civil war, “fitnogenic” - characterized the unrulyness of the Sicilian Muslim colony, which constantly rebelled

- “the word fitna to [describe] turmoil in the island and how the fall of the Kalbid emirate and the civil strife that ushered the Normans into Sicily, that is, the quintessential “Sicilian fitna,” were not addressed as episodes of fitna at all by Arabic historians. But Sicilian Arabic poetry provides us with a different narrative”

- “At the end of the tenth century, Muslim Sicily was collapsing from within”

- “Taking advantage of the turmoil, their vassals across the island proclaimed themselves independent, and Sicily was de facto split in independent principalities, or taifas”

- The continuous bickering of the Sicilian petty princes would eventually consign the island to the Normans, who accomplished its conquest at the end of the eleventh century.”

- An example of the continuous rebellion of Sicily: “al-Akḥal proposed to the Sicilians that they be exempt from a new tax that he would impose only on the North Africans. To this proposal the Sicilians replied that making a distinction between them and the Africans had become impossible since they had been intermarrying for so long. Unperturbed, al-Akḥal went on to propose the very same offer to the North Africans. The North Africans, apparently less scrupulous than their cousins, accepted. As a consequence, a land tax (kharaj) was imposed only on the “Sicilians.” And sure enough, the Sicilians responded with another rebellion.”

- The Fatimid-aligned Zirids in Tunisia sent an army that overthows al-Akhal with the Sicilians, but this ends up leading to a larger rebellion and backfires on the Zirids.

- “By 1040, the Kalbid kingdom had disintegrated. In place of centralized rule, local warlords had seized the main urban centers across the island and proclaimed themselves independent. Soon a power struggle would ensue, drawing the island into civil war. Once again, the Muslims turned against one another. From the chaos of the Sicilian civil war there emerged a strongman: Ibn al-Thumna, lord of Syracuse and Catania.”

- “​​Aided and abetted by Ibn al-Thumna, the Normans cross the Strait of Messina over to Sicily. They find no resistance all the way to Castrogiovanni and take possession of one town after the next. When Ibn al-Thumna is ambushed and killed by fellow Muslims in 1062 the Normans continue in their enterprise, possibly still aided by Ibn al-Thumna’s Muslim army”

- “A-Muʿizz’s successor, Tamīm, refused to abandon the hope of recovering Sicily. In 1063 he dispatched a larger army commanded by his son Ayyūb. These reinforcements were received by Ibn al-Ḥawwās, who was holding out in his impregnable citadel of Castrogiovanni. Ayyūb and his army were encamped at Agrigento”

- “So he marched against Ayyūb with his own army, and fought him in pitched battle. But the people of Agrigento stood by the North Africans, and fought with them against Ibn al-Ḥawwās. In the fray, the latter was struck and killed by an arrow. The army hailed Ayub as king of the Sicilians (mallaka al-ʿaskaruʿalay-him Ayyu‐ba).”

- ibn al-Athīr’s conclusion:

- “fitna is generally applied to disturbances or outright civil war. It suggests the idea of dissension within the umma, that borders on apostasy and the loss of divine guidance.”

- “As a state of rebellion against the divine Law, it is at once crime and punishment.”

- “fracture the cohesion of the community, plunging it into strife”

- “it is clear that al-Tamīmī was part of the Sicilian khaṣṣa —or landed aristocracy—who colonized Sicily in the ninth century”

- “the poet mourns the loss of Muslim Sicily to the Normans and the calamitous events of the Sicilian fitna that led to the invasion. The poem is highly telling of how first-hand accounts of the fitna differed from later elaborations by Arabic historians: al-Tamīmī is unequivocal in accusing the Sicilian Muslims of having called disaster upon themselves and of having brought about the end of Muslim Sicily.

- “Sicilian Muslims turn their swords against one another, and even stab in the back those fighting the real enemy (i.e., the Normans). This clear reference to Ibn al-Thumna, who summons the Normans in aid against Ibn al-Ḥawwās, would not have been lost on al-Tamīmī’s audience. Ibn al-Thumna himself, let us recall here, falls prey to an ambush by the Muslims.”

- “Ibn Ḥamdīs’s verses insist on how turmoil and infighting breach religious codes, conjuring the specter of sectarian antagonism as the great puppeteer behind the scenes of the fitna.”

- “it is clear that al-Tamīmī and Ibn Ḥamdīs were looking beyond the coast of their beloved island to an audience understood as the Maghribī Muslim community in its entirety”

- “...in their eyes it was the Muslims, and not the Normans, who broke Sicily’s heart and drained her life’s blood”

Some scenes of Muslim culture in Sicily from the Palatine Chapel. Photos by blog author. 

Reflections of il Moro: 
Carpentieri uses modern historical methods of reviewing primary documents and using accounts of those from the cultural setting, or most impacted by the events, to construct a stronger understanding of this pivotal historical moment of change in power, politics, and religion in Sicily. Carpentieri shows through the analysis of the poetry of Sicilian Muslims that there was a deeper conflict of “divine law” that would be described as a fitna, and was the result of the splintering of the community, making it vulnerable to the Normans, who were invited in by one of the competing Muslim leaders (an act that repeatedly happened in different ways through Sicilian history). The poetry and the accompanying historical record also highlight an important part of Sicilian Muslim identity. At the time of this transition, two centuries into Muslim rule, the distinction between Sicilian, African, and Muslim did not exist in the way we may think of it today. This is highlighted as an aside to the poetry, when al-Akḥal attempts to tax Sicilian Muslims. Although there is a distinction between Sicilian-born Muslims, and recent arrivals, there is a unified Sicilian Muslim identity rooted in their connection to Islam and (primarily) to North Africa. Again, when looking at the larger historical context, this makes sense. Ibn Ḥamdīs, for example, came from a Muslim family that had been established in the southeast of Sicily for 6-7 generations. Lastly, the poetry highlights something that many in the Sicilian diaspora can relate to today: The profound loss of home. Similar to this time period, in the latest history of changes in political power due to the unification with Italy, Sicilians have experienced the need to leave, and carry the profound loss of home with them. The poetry of al-Tamīmī and Ibn Ḥamdīs, beyond demonstrating the ways how to understand the end of Muslim rule in Sicily, reflect this loss and feeling of home that are still relevant to Sicilians today.

Link to full article by Nicola Carpentieri

Book Review of "The Muslims of Medieval Italy" by Alex Metcalfe

 

Summary: 
Alex Metcalfe very purposely has titled this “The Muslims of Medieval Italy,” because it does not just include the conquering of Sicily by Muslims from Ifriqiya, but also includes excursions into Southern Italy, and details of the deportation of Muslims from Frederick II to Lucera in Southern Italy, where the Muslim colony of about 15000 existed for several decades until it was disbanded in 1300 and the population was sold into slavery. Metcalfe is clear throughout the book about what there is evidence for, what different sources suggest, and where there is a need to make assumptions or guesses. Metcalfe does an excellent job of sharing the history of the establishment, structure, and end of Muslim communities from the 800s to 1300s in what came to be part of Italy today.

Key Quote, Information, or Chapter:

- The books explores the crossroads of Islam and Christianity, Europe and Africa

- The work of Michele Amari continues to be central to understanding the era

- June of 827 marks the beginning of conquest of Mazara from Ifriqiya, but it took a long time to fully conquer Sicily, and included Arabas, Slavs under the control of Arabs, troops from the Sudan and south in Africa, Berbers from Andalusia, Cretan Muslims, and others.

- Palermo was fully taken over, the last Christian institution was a small monastery outside the city walls.

- Muslims were involved politically all the way into Naples, the Amalfi Coast, and Benevento. There was even an amir established in Bari for a short period of time on the east coast from 847 - 871

- Muslims were often referred to as Saracen’s - a reference to the wife of Abraham, Sarah.

- First amir of Bari - Khalfun al-Barbari - Khalfun the Berber

- Second amir of Bari - al-Mufarraj bin Sallam, who was killed by his soldiers for unknown reasons

- Last amir of Bari - Sawdan al-Mawri - the Moor, was likely African

- After the fall of Bari, the Aghlabids appointed a governor of Sicily and one of “the Big Land,” leading to a 12 month seigh or Salerno, which was not successful.

- Qal’a(t) - “fort of” → Calta - often followed by names, which were domains of rule

- Berber tribal names can be found in Sicilian toponyms

- This is also part of the evidence for the presence of Ibaldi Muslims in Sicily via the Berbers that came to Sicily, although the use of Berber words is minimal.

- When Shiite Fatimid rule began, Sicily and Ifriqiya still have Sunni Maliki jurists that impacted politics and culture.

- In the 960s the Fatimids led re-settlement campaigns to bring Muslims into areas that were Christian strongholds such in Val Demone, such as Taormina.

- Ahmed, the ta’yid al dawla (Support of the State), appointed by al-Hakim, the Fatimid leader in Egypt, during the tai’fa period, led campaigns against Christian towns that had become too autonomous or weren’t paying tribute.

- Norman invasion, from Arabic sources, appeared to come out of nowhere, and the issue of who the Normans are, where they were from, etc is a bit complicated, the first wave was mostly ethnic Normans from Normandy, but that changed over time.

- As Roger I took control of Sicily, Ifriqiya was in disarray, with the Zirids breaking away from the Fatimids in favor of the Abbasids and being attacked by the Banu Hilal

- The full Norman occupation took 30 years to complete, and was often aided by Muslim allies in Sicily, namely Ibn al-Thumna

- Ibn al-Hawwas was a key leader in the center of the island, but was killed in battle against Zirids from Ifriqiya

- Some of the battles were brutal - in Zotica (Judica), the town was destroyed, men were all killed, and women were sold into slavery in Calabria

- Muslim leaders of Butera were also sent to Calabria, which had a small existing Muslim population, most of these people assimilated or converted in Calabria

- The Christian church had lost footing during the Muslim rule of Sicily, and the Normans granted large lands to the church, including those with Muslim communities on them

- Example of state of Christianity during Muslim rule - in western Sicily, there was one Greek archbishop located outside the city (near present day Monreale)

- The famous Sant’Agata in Catania was established the year after Muslims were defeated there

- Records of who paid the jizya tax, including those exempt under Islamic law were used and continued after Norman conquest.

- Countess Adelaide was the regent until Roger II took power as king. She continued the push toward Christianity - with her connections to Genoa, she invited many from the mainlands to settle in Sicily, which is the origins of the string of Gallo-Italic towns west of Catania, and there is evidence of Muslims leaving Sicily at this time toward Ifriqiya or to al-Andalus

- Despite this, Muslims still have a prominent role in Sicily, or converted, and most places were still majority Muslim, including Messina, and of course, Palermo

- From the start Muslims and converts played important administrative roles - George of Antioch was named the amir in 1125, also was the chief minister (wazir) until his death in 1151 - he had held administrative roles in Ifriqiya, and fled Ifriqiya due to conflict, hence holding both connection and contention with Ifriqiya

- The Martorana is not only established by George, but was important to both Greek Christians and Arab Christians

- It was visited by Ibn Jubayr during Christmas of 1184, and highly praised both for its beauty and the modesty of the Eastern rite Christians

- George’s role as the lead of the diwans was significant and stabilizing as the Norman kingdom was established

- Among the other important administrators and qadis, many were from the Banu Raja kin group, such as Abu I-daw’

- In the century after the fall of Muslim Sicily, over 50 Latin abbeys were found across 9 large dioceses, meaning the vast majority of Muslims lived on crown lands or those of a Latin-rite church - Monreale would come to cause the most conflict in the future.

- The end of the Norman period is sometimes named as the death of William II in 1189, or with the death of Frederick II, although he had inherited the throne through his German family, or it could be extended as a period through the Wars of the Sicilian Vespers which coincided with the end of the Muslim colony of Lucera on the mainland. Either way, the role of Muslims diminished and became more hostile over time

- Roger II continued much of what had been established under Muslim rule, but by the time he had consolidated power, there had not been an island wide authority in nearly 100 years (the last years of Muslim rule were clouded by regional conflict, and the Normans took several decades to fully conquer the island

- Roger II and his administrators issued several edicts early on that allowed Muslims to effectively govern themselves in most ways, and local shaykhs were depended on for governance

- Norman Sicily initially kept close ties to the Zirids in Ifriqiya and even defended them from the Banu Hammad, many from Ifriqiya came to Sicily during famine and war in North Africa

- This eventually led to the Norman taking control of parts of Ifriqiya, starting with Tripoli in 1146

- Although significant, this would not last very long for a variety of reasons

- First, the Almohad’s were expanding across the Maghrib, requiring a delicate balance of supporting local rulers and defending against the expansion

- Additionally, there was a major political fight that had significant implications for Muslims in Sicily - Philip of Mahdiyya, a palace eunuch, who knew Roger from a young age, as accused of apostasy - essentially, he was accused of continuing to be a Muslim and faking his conversion to Christianity - he was tried and executed in 1153

- The death was an example to other Muslims about power and importance - Philip was burned alive, in execution, and was a message in many ways that although Muslims in Ifriqiya were allowed to practice their faith without any retribution or hierarchy, it would not be the same in Sicily

- This tension continued into the reign of William I

- 1160s - Normans lost control of Ifriqiya, blame was placed on Muslims in the royal court, and Latin Nobles wanted more power

- Nobles, led by Simon and Tancred, ransacked the Norman Palace, and started a wave of violence and massacres of Muslims in Palermo, and burned records - the rebellion lost steam, but impacted Muslims across Sicily

- Palace eunuchs did play a big part in Muslim communities, especially as a contact with local Shaykhs

- Palace eunuchs typically had Arabic alamat - or signatures - that referenced Islam (even when they were nominally Christian)

- There are instances where eunuchs left the position and re-adopted Islam and Arab names - ext the qa’id Peter left to the Almohads, and changed his name to Ahmad al-Siqilli

- The story of the Muslims of Monreale are key to understanding the eventual deportation of many Muslims from Western Sicily

- Monreale’s land included Iato, Corleone, and Calatrasi, and Muslims were bound to these lands - and this area expanded over the time period of the late 1100s

- Muslims in these areas were led by Abu I’Qasim whose heredity traced back to the Banu I-Hammud, a tribal line from al-Andalus that claimed to trace itself back to the Prophet Muhammad

- Despite this heritage, and his claim that his position should be passed down, it is believed that some of his sons converted to Christianity, and there were benefits to converting, although it is not known how many people converted or the exact process

- This was all taking place in the midst of other changed and diverse peoples, including Greeks who didn’t follow the Latin Christian rites, Arab Christians, and Jews

- Several pages are dedicated to the Arab influence on culture, architecture, translation of classic books, education, etc.

- Back to Monreale, there are detailed records in Arabic and Greek of who was registered to the land and who was unregistered - Muslims had to by a jizya religious tax and a land tax (qanun)

- Muslims in Monreale had essentially become a source of expected revenue, leading to a Muslim revolt near 1200

- The revolt came during changes in the Norman dynasty and pressure from the Catholic church - leading to the Frederick II taking control - his relationship with Muslims was complex, but not as close or effective as Roger II, and reflected the continued decline of Muslim influence

- Muslims had consolidated under Ibn’Abbad and were fighting Frederick II’s army directly, especially in the mountainous areas of Western Sicily

- Ibn’Abbad was killed, and qa’id Maarzuq took over unsuccessfully

- Stories mention the daughter of Ibn’Abbad also being part of the leadership (which was unique)

- Muslims were given the option of recognizing the authority of Monreale, and follow the terms first laid out by William II

- When did this not work - Frederick II started deportations to Lucera, which Muslims somewhat agreed to because they would be allowed to continue their faith, this also coincided with resettling Christian rebels in Malta and ending protections for Muslims in Malta and Muslims in Malta were also sent to Lucera

- There was a final rebellion in 1243 of Muslims in the mountains, leading to more deportations

- Lucera was used as a tax base and Muslims were often drafted into military service

- They had qadis, jurists, and even some members that made the pilgrimage to Mecca

- Deportation led to declines in agriculture and life in Western Sicily, especially when paired with the Wars of the Sicilian Vespers in 1281 and 1302, and the arrival of the plague in the mid 1300s

- The population of Western Sicily would not fully recover from these three major events until the 1800s

-Lucera was disbanded in 1300

William II, presenting Monreale to Santa Maria - the establishment of Monreale would eventually lead to the deportation of a large number of Muslims connected to lands held under Monreale in Western Sicily. Photo by blog author.

Reflections of il Moro: 
There were two significant conclusions that I drew from Metcalfe’s work. First, the role of Admiral George of Antioch, who had previously worked in Ifriqiya, was significant and stabilizing. With knowledge of Muslim administration and culture, he was able to skillfully navigate the transition from Muslim rule to Norman rule in a way that allowed King Roger II to draw on the strengths of Muslims, Greeks, and Jews under his kingship. Much of the celebrated historical multicultural accomplishments come out of this time or are due to this foundation, and Admiral George’s role is under appreciated. The other important conclusion that was sad to realize was the history of Monreale as it relates to the deportation of Muslims and the destabilization of the Muslim community. Monreale is often portrayed as a great example of the fusion of cultures in Sicily, with elements of Fatimid design and Byzantine iconography in a Latin cathedral. However, the Muslims bound to the archbishop of Monreale never fully accepted the terms of the relationship. Although the Muslims and the agriculture of West Sicily were an enormous source of profit and taxes, it was also a source of rebellion. Muslim existence became less about an exchange of skills and culture, and more about a source of revenue, and later, when deported, a source for soldiers. A large portion of the population was deported in the 1200s due to this ongoing conflict. It is unclear how many may have converted or stayed by other means, although large areas, such as Iota and Corleone, were significantly depopulated as they were directly connected to Monreale. It is a hard reality to understand that Monreale is both an example of the cultures in Sicily and a source of the Latinization and end of Muslim culture in Sicily. Of course, this is not fully true, the culture lives on in the food, language, architecture, and DNA of the people, such are the contradictions of Sicily.

A few more photos from Monreale taken from my last trip there in Spring, 2025. Photos by blog author.

Book Review of "A History of Muslim Sicily" by Leonard C. Chiarelli

 

Summary: 
Leonard C. Chiarelli continues the landmark work of Michele Amari and Carlo Nallino, who first compiled the historical documents of the Muslim era of Sicily, which were primarily in Arabic and started to rediscover this important and influential period of time. Chiarelli adds on to what has been established and brings deeper insights and evidence of the established and rule of Muslims in Sicily, including describing the political structure, the social structure, the economy, and the culture. One of his landmark finding through his research is the strong presence of Berber culture, including the deep connection to the Ibadi school of Islam. This books lays a deep foundation for understanding Muslim presence, rule, and impact on Sicily.

Key Quote, Information, or Chapter:

- Sicily was colony of Aghlabids, and later the Fatimids, meaning it was culturally, economically, and politically part of North Africa

- Sicilians would go as far as India to establish trade partners for the Ifriqiyah-Sicily-Egypt trade route.

- Slavery was not the largest part of this trade, but did exist, and included human trafficking from the Balkans as well as from parts of Africa

- Slavery did function different, and were able to advance in society in different ways, famous examples include St. Elias the Younger, Jawhar ibn ‘Abd Allah al-Siquilli

- This was not restricted to the coast, there is evidence of an Ibadite community in Enna that had a strong economic trade with the Sudan - there were multiple Berber tribes, alliances, and groups throughout Sicily that have lent placenames, family names, and words that persist to today

- The Barqajanah Ibadite community was strong in Palermo

The Ibadi Muslim sect is still a part of the Islam today, most widely in Oman, but with small communities of believes throughout North Africa, including Tunisia (which is how it found its way to Sicily).

- Murabbitu - A Sicilian word that refers to a hermit or someone that abstains from drinking wine and alcohol - has it’s originz from “ribats” which were former military structures that were converted for use by Sufi mystics near Palermo, Sciacca, Agrigento, Qasr Nubu (Castronovo), Bulis (Polizzi), Alia, Sutir (Sutera), Qaqabush (Caccamo), Mineo, and Salemi

- Most famous Sicilian Sufi was Abu ‘Uthman Sa’id ibn Sallam al-Kirkinti of Agrigento - “Whoever prefers the company of the rich to the gathers of the poor will by tried by God with the death of the heart.”

- Coptic Christians from Egypt formed a community near Monreale

- Several Muslim Sicilians were experts in Arabic grammar and the Koran

Reflections of il Moro:
Chiarelli’s work has provided the evidence and history for something that Sicilians have long known - that there is a deep-rooted strong connection to Africa. Sicily came under Muslim rule at a time when Ifriqiyah had recently converted to Islam, and the development of Islam was at a pivotal point. A History of Muslim Sicily outlines the ways in which Berber culture and traditions were interwoven into “Muslim” rule. The Berbers established connections to mercenaries in Sudan, trade in Egypt, scholarship and tribal ties to Morocco, the salt trade across the continent, even Coptic communities near Palermo. There absolutely were also ethnic Arabs and peoples from the Levant, but the evidence of the Berbers and the impact that they had was something that Sicilians acknowledge, and something that Chiarelli provides the evidence for in this book. It provides a greater picture of what this history means.