Article Review: The Ibadiyah in Muslim Sicily by Nardo Chiarelli

The arrival of a boat from Ifrīqīyah in Sicily, from a mural in Mazara

Summary: This book is written by Nardo Chiarelli, the  author of The History of Muslim Sicily and expands on the work in the books about the Ibadis. The Ibadi sect of Islam makes for the third largest group of Muslims, and their origins, like Shias and Sunnis, go all the way back to the the first years of the establishment of Islam when many of the divisions that currently exist began. Today, Ibadi Muslims make up a large part of Oman, on the Arabian Peninsula. But, historically, the Amazigh (described by the older term, Berbers in the article) of North Africa had historically embraced Ibadism at times and among certain tribes. This article explains the evidence that suggests a connection between Ibadi Berbers and migration to Sicily in the form of names of towns and people, archaeological evidence, and historical accounts. 

Key Quotes, Information, or Chapter: 

- Members of the invading army of Arabs, Persians (Khurasānī), Andalusians and Berbers settled there. The largest group to settle in Sicily was the indigenous population of North Africa, known in the Middle Ages and today as the Berbers.

- The island’s fertility was well known, and since its soil excelled in the production of the same crops (especially wheat, barley, olives, grapes and figs) grown in North Africa, immigrants moved there in substantial numbers.

- In addition, land was available for settlement because the previous century saw economic and demographic instability most likely due to the series of plagues from 541 to 135/752. It is estimated that the population within the Byzantine Empire may have declined by as much as 30%.

- Some urban centers, such as Gela, Selinunte, Segesta and other ancient settlements, had been abandoned. Depopulation and demographic decline is also confirmed in contemporary Greek sources and archeological findings. Some Arabic sources also mention that the island was sparsely populated when the Muslims arrive.

- The Arabs were the other group to colonize the island. These settlers, who originally came from Andalus, Arabia, Syria and Yemen, were not as numerous as the Berbers, but represented the dominant religious, military and ruling elite. They were represented by members of both the Muḍar and Qaḥṭān groups, such as the Azd, Kināna, Lakhm, Sha‘rān, Tamīm, and others.

- According to the legal scholar al-Dāwūdī there was a steady flow of people from

Ifrīqīya to Sicily during the 4th/10th century. A major movement from North Africa is recorded during the great famine of 395/1004 -1005, when rich and poor, urban and rural folk, as well as Bedouins fled to the island. Another migration from Ifrīqīyah occurred in 451/1059, that is, after the Normans controlled most of the island. 

- The first group of Ibāḍīs to settle in Sicily were those of the invading military forces and those auxiliary groups that sustained them. A major part of the invading army was composed of members of the Hawwāra tribe, one of the largest and most influential Ibāḍī Berber groups in North Africa during the 2nd/8th to the 5th/11th century

- One of the leading commanders of the conquering army was Zawāwa Ibn Ni’mah al-Khalaf, a member of the Hawwāra tribe.

- It appears that these early settlers were mostly concentrated in the north and west of the island, that is, where the Muslim army first took control and established its administrative apparatus. Evidence on the presence of Berber tribes adhering to Ibāḍīsm in this northern region is revealed in the toponyms of the hamlets, towns and villages of this period that show that a large number of the settlements derive their names from individual members of Berber tribes, or to the names of Berber tribes themselves.

- We see a Berber tribe giving its name to two settlements. One in the north, near Palermo and one in the south, such as the Ibāḍī Berber tribe of Faṭanāsa (also Fuṭṭanāsa). One village, Raḥl Fuṭṭāsina, was located in the north near the present village of Corleone; the other, Fetanasino in Norman documents, lay between Ragusa and Enna. This tribal name evokes the Ibāḍite Berber tribe of Faṭanāsa or Fuṭṭanāsa, a branch of the Mazāta that in the medieval period inhabited the town of Faṭanāsa located inthe Jarīd region between Tozeur and Qabīlī on the trade route going to Qābis

- Not far from the present town of Monreale was the medieval village of Raḥl Maghāghī, a settlement named after the Lawāta sub-tribe of Maghāgha.

- The nisba (an adjectival appellation, which maybe formed from a town, tribe or profession) of people such as al-Rīghī; al-Maklātī; al-Masallātī; al-Misrātī, and Waddānī, (40) are found along with the many Hawwārī, Zanātī, Lawātī, Nafzāwī, (41) the mainstay tribes of the Ibāḍī Rustumid state.

- The capital city of Sicily, Palermo, also appears to have had an Ibāḍī presence. Ibn Ḥawqal reports that a large number of the inhabitants of the capital city were Barqajāna Berbers.

- From the region of Enna south to Ragusa, Modica, Scicli and Noto we find settlements and toponyms as well as archaeological finds that strongly hint of an Ibāḍī presence.

- A stronger example is found in Angevin records of the 8th/14th century where mention is made of the town of Tahartina in the region of Noto. (61) In 535/1140 it was part of four hamlets, and today it is located in the contrada San Marco, some 10 kms north of Noto Antica. Adjacent to this site is the cave complex and stream known today as Manghisi. This appears to be the name of the Ibāḍī tribe and town of Manjisa, which was part of the district of Tahert in Algeria.

- Studies on cave dwellings (troglodytic houses) found in western and southern Sicily - especially in the areas of Enna, Modica, Noto, Ragusa, and Scicli - indicate that their design and plan are the same as those found in the troglodytic settlements of southern Tunisia and Jabal Nafūsa, that is, the region where Ibāḍī Berber tribes predominated. In some cases these cave dwellings have been shown to be used as mosques, since they clearly show a qiblah and miḥrāb. 

- The most compelling evidence, however, comes from the 5th/11th century Ibāḍī scholar Sulaymān al-Wisyānī who sheds light on Sicily’s confessional ties to the Ibāḍī spiritual center at Jerba. He reports in his work Kitāb al-Siyar that one of the Ibāḍī communities in Sicily sought guidance on some legal questions.

- [This] points to Sicily’s multi-sectarian religious heritage and the recognition that Muslim Sicily reflected the religious diversity found in the rest of the Islamic North Africa.

- The presence of Ibāḍī tribes in Palermo and other areas of Sicily indicates that during the period of Islamic rule Sicily was part of the Ibāḍī trade network, which was organized on “confessional” as well as a tribal lines, and monopolized trade between the sub-Sahara and the Mediterranean coast.

Reflections of il Moro: Chiarelli summarizes clearly the ideas introduced in his book, The Muslim History of Sicily, by showing the clear throughline of evidence that shows the presence of Ibadi Amazigh (referred to as Berbers in the article) in Sicily. He begins by establishing evidence of large scale migration from Ifrīqīyah (Tunisia) during the time of Muslim colonization. Many parts of Sicily were depopulated or abandoned, and there was large amounts of land available. Although Muslims from many regions came to Sicily during this time, the majority are believed to have been Berbers, originally as part of the military. Given that the flow of people came primarily through Ifrīqīyah, this should not be surprising. Members of the Hawwāra tribe led the military, and there is strong evidence that they kept in contact with Djerba, in southern Tunisia. Ibn Ḥawqal, the famous Muslim traveler, also wrote that many people in Palermo were Barqajāna Berbers. One of the most surprising pieces of evidence came from the Southeast region of Sicily the design and plan of cave dwellings (which were used into the 20th century) are the same as those found in the settlements of southern Tunisia and Jabal Nafūsa, where Ibāḍī Berber tribes were common. Chiarelli says that, “ In some cases these cave dwellings have been shown to be used as mosques, since they clearly show a qiblah and miḥrāb.” Chiarelli argues that she shows the diversity of Muslim presence in Sicily. And I would take it a step further, and say that it shows the continued legacy in the form of place names, family names, and undoubtedly ways of living. 

Link to the full research article

Article Review: "What became of medieval Sicily’s Arabs? Genetic Demographic Evidence" by Louis Mendola

 

A street mural from Mazara, one of the original landing points of Muslims from Tunisia. Photo by blog author.

Summary: 
This short research article seeks to answer concisely what happened to the Arabs from the Muslim era of Sicily with genetic evidence, and based on previous research by the author himself, Louis Mendola. The research shows that genetic testing both reinforces the recorded historical facts and fills in some of the question marks. It is known and recorded that the final stand by Sicilian Muslims against the rule of the Normans and the land ownership of the Catholic Church was in the Iato area of West Sicily and resulted in Frederick II deporting an estimated 20,000 Muslims to Lucera in what today is Southern Italy. What the DNA evidence adds and that the historical record suggest is that many more Muslims integrated into Latin Sicily. Effectively, the Arab lineage never left, and continues to be part of the genetic heritage of almost all present-day Sicilians (and by extension, those in the Sicilian diaspora).

Key Quotes, Information, or Chapter:

• “By 1250, there were no Byzantine dioceses in Sicily; only a few Orthodox monasteries remained. Following a series of revolts, a few thousand Muslim Arabs were deported to Lucera in Apulia, while thousands more converted to Catholicism. By 1250, mosques were a rare sight.”

• “The genetic record revealed by DNA haplotyping confirms what historians have always known about the diversity of Sicily’s historic populations.”

• “Sicily’s population, like its culture, has been essentially endogamous since around 1300.”

• “In the case of Sicily, it has validated recorded history rather than challenged it.”

• “In its essence, the genetic evidence suggests that the greater part of Sicily’s Arabs did not simply leave the island (for Tunisia or other Fatimid lands), nor were they deported during the reign of Frederick II. Rather, such evidence as exists implies that the great majority assimilated with the Latin population, adopted Christianity and remained here in Sicily, in much the same manner as the Greek-speakers were Latinized.”

Map from What became of medieval Sicily’s Arabs? Genetic Demographic Evidence © 2016 Louis Mendola

Reflections of il Moro: 
The final quote says it all, “the great majority [of Arabs] assimilated with the Latin population, adopted Christianity and remained here in Sicily.” It is not just the DNA evidence either. It is well documented in the place names, surnames, language, food, art, and culture of Sicily. In my own family, we have the DNA evidence, but also a last name derived from Arabic, and come from a part of Sicily that historically had a large number of Arabs. Part of what Mendola tries to get at is that it is the layers of historical evidence that speak to the enduring presence. Last names alone were not necessarily indicators of DNA heritage (despite what some online sites claim), region alone is not an indicator, DNA alone is only part of the story, having Arab food in culinary tradition is not the full story - it is all of these things together that have been woven through a culture that has been largely “endogamous” (i.e. genetically unchanging) for the last 700+ years that speak to our Arab heritage.

Full article by Louis Mendola

Book Review of "A History of Muslim Sicily" by Leonard C. Chiarelli

 

Summary: 
Leonard C. Chiarelli continues the landmark work of Michele Amari and Carlo Nallino, who first compiled the historical documents of the Muslim era of Sicily, which were primarily in Arabic and started to rediscover this important and influential period of time. Chiarelli adds on to what has been established and brings deeper insights and evidence of the established and rule of Muslims in Sicily, including describing the political structure, the social structure, the economy, and the culture. One of his landmark finding through his research is the strong presence of Berber culture, including the deep connection to the Ibadi school of Islam. This books lays a deep foundation for understanding Muslim presence, rule, and impact on Sicily.

Key Quote, Information, or Chapter:

- Sicily was colony of Aghlabids, and later the Fatimids, meaning it was culturally, economically, and politically part of North Africa

- Sicilians would go as far as India to establish trade partners for the Ifriqiyah-Sicily-Egypt trade route.

- Slavery was not the largest part of this trade, but did exist, and included human trafficking from the Balkans as well as from parts of Africa

- Slavery did function different, and were able to advance in society in different ways, famous examples include St. Elias the Younger, Jawhar ibn ‘Abd Allah al-Siquilli

- This was not restricted to the coast, there is evidence of an Ibadite community in Enna that had a strong economic trade with the Sudan - there were multiple Berber tribes, alliances, and groups throughout Sicily that have lent placenames, family names, and words that persist to today

- The Barqajanah Ibadite community was strong in Palermo

The Ibadi Muslim sect is still a part of the Islam today, most widely in Oman, but with small communities of believes throughout North Africa, including Tunisia (which is how it found its way to Sicily).

- Murabbitu - A Sicilian word that refers to a hermit or someone that abstains from drinking wine and alcohol - has it’s originz from “ribats” which were former military structures that were converted for use by Sufi mystics near Palermo, Sciacca, Agrigento, Qasr Nubu (Castronovo), Bulis (Polizzi), Alia, Sutir (Sutera), Qaqabush (Caccamo), Mineo, and Salemi

- Most famous Sicilian Sufi was Abu ‘Uthman Sa’id ibn Sallam al-Kirkinti of Agrigento - “Whoever prefers the company of the rich to the gathers of the poor will by tried by God with the death of the heart.”

- Coptic Christians from Egypt formed a community near Monreale

- Several Muslim Sicilians were experts in Arabic grammar and the Koran

Reflections of il Moro:
Chiarelli’s work has provided the evidence and history for something that Sicilians have long known - that there is a deep-rooted strong connection to Africa. Sicily came under Muslim rule at a time when Ifriqiyah had recently converted to Islam, and the development of Islam was at a pivotal point. A History of Muslim Sicily outlines the ways in which Berber culture and traditions were interwoven into “Muslim” rule. The Berbers established connections to mercenaries in Sudan, trade in Egypt, scholarship and tribal ties to Morocco, the salt trade across the continent, even Coptic communities near Palermo. There absolutely were also ethnic Arabs and peoples from the Levant, but the evidence of the Berbers and the impact that they had was something that Sicilians acknowledge, and something that Chiarelli provides the evidence for in this book. It provides a greater picture of what this history means.

Book Review of "Narrating Muslim Sicily" by William Granara

 

Summary: 
"Narrating Muslim Sicily: War and Peace in the Medieval Mediterranean World" by William Granara looks at primary documents of Muslim writers (mostly legal scholars and poets) to make sense of the political and cultural landscape of Sicily over about 500 years right before, during, and after Muslim rule in Sicily. Granara has previously written extensively on the Sicilian Muslim, Ibn Hamdis, who grew up in Siracusa, and this book includes an in-depth analysis of his poetry, and other poetry by Muslim authors as a means to understand cultural and political forces during the time of Muslim rule. It concludes with describing the way these forces had a lasting impact into Norman rule and beyond.

 

Key Quote, Information or Chapter: 
This book is well organized with an in-depth overview of the start and end of Muslim rule, and in interpretation of complex forces that opened the doors to it, including how internal conflict both opened the doors to Muslim rule and to Muslim succession by the Normans.

Here is some of the key Sicilian history that is covered:
- It starts with identifying the source of much of recent Arab-Sicilian history research going back to Michele Amari (1806 - 1889), the author of "Biblioteca Arabo-Sicula," and "Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia" and looks at key sources of information, most from after the time of Muslim rule, including Ibn Hawqal, a traveler (973), Ibn al-Athir, historian (1233), al-Nuwayri, historian (1333), and Ibn Khaldun, historian (1406).
- Dar al-Islam (the Muslim world) had quickly expanded across Ifriqiya (North Africa) right across from Sicily. Asad ibn al-Furat from the Aghlabid Dynasty led the charge into Sicily in the 800, first landing in Mazara. The Aghlabid Dynasty was in charge from 827 - 909 under Ziyadat-allah leadership from Tunisia. As more Muslims came into Sicily, there was a distinct split between Arab Muslims, who were mostly centered in Palermo and North African Berbers (Amazigh).
- In 909, the Fatimids come into power, they are Shi'ites (where most Muslims in Sicily at the time were Sunni), and centered in Cairo (a city founded by a Sicilian Muslim!). They were in power until 944. During this the Fatimid caliph, 'Ubayd Allah ruled through direct proxy. The governor of Sicily, al-Hasan ibn Ahmad ibn Abi Khinzir arrived in Mazara and was a Kutama Berber. al-Hasan's broth, 'Ali, was a regional governor of Agrigento. Sicilians reject the brother and elected Ahmed ibn Qurhub.
- This was not strictly a sectarian conflict, but was more about resisting the rule of North Africa.
- ibn Qurhub pledges support to the rising Abbasid caliph, al-Muqtadir, in Baghdad, in rebellion of the Fatimids, but the Berbers in Agrigento rebelled against this and re-aligned with the Fatimids.
- ibn Qurhub is excusted, and the Fatimids send Abu Sa'id Musa ibn Ahmad with the back up of Kutama Berbers to establish rule.
- It ultimately doesn't work as Agrigento rebels again, and in 937, there is a series of conflicts of near civil war and an attempt by the Byzantines to return to rule. This leads to a high death toll, emigration of Muslims from Sicily, conflict with North Africa and starvation.
- The Fatmids lose control, and the Kalbids rule from 944 - 1044, the Kalb Tribe achieved greater cohesion among the Muslims in Sicily. al-Hasan ibn 'Ali, from a line of Sicilian Muslims leads, and his son, al-Mu'izz takes over after.
- Trade opens up with the Fatimids in Cairo, Taromina, the last Christian stronghold, falls, and the Byzantines are defeated, leading to three peaceful decades.
- This was a period of strong scholarship in the tradition of Maliki law, Arabic language, and poetry.
- 998 - Instability begins as infightings grows after Abu al-Futuh is paralyzed due to illness
- 1036 - Sunni Sicilians organize to oppose Shi'ite Fatimids
- 1038 - Continued disunity and fighting, Byzantine pressure, and Normans moving through Southern Italy leads to warlords dividing the island
- Normans attempt to align with East Sicily and easily dismantle Muslim rule while the Fatimids were focused on island to the East and fighting the Zirids in North Africa
- Castogiovanni (Enna), Agrigento, and Noto are resisted and were Muslim strongholds, but the Normans were able to take over.

Reflections of il Moro: 
"Narrating Muslim Sicily" has a thoughtful ending of placing Federico II as both the "wonder of the world," and the ruler responsible for expelling Muslims. A multicultural "King of Sicily," "the Holy Roman Emperor," "the baptized Sultan," and "King of Jerusalem." He was a champion of Muslim intellect, Arab language, and Eastern customs, and a villain in the Sicilian-Arab Jesu and Guifa tales. The contradictions and blurred boarders of Federico II are similar to the history and present of Sicilia, a place that exist in the past and continues to define itself in the present. A place that has been part of Europe, part of the East, and part of Africa at different points. A Catholic island with elements Muslim burial rituals (vigil and burial soon after death) and Eastern traditions (like churches oriented toward Jerusalem, deep devotion to Mary and Saints, etc). A place were people still greet each other with "Assabinirica" from "As-salamu alaykum." All of these things co-exist and are true at the same time, it is what makes Sicilia Sicilia.