Book Review of "The Muslims of Medieval Italy" by Alex Metcalfe

 

Summary: 
Alex Metcalfe very purposely has titled this “The Muslims of Medieval Italy,” because it does not just include the conquering of Sicily by Muslims from Ifriqiya, but also includes excursions into Southern Italy, and details of the deportation of Muslims from Frederick II to Lucera in Southern Italy, where the Muslim colony of about 15000 existed for several decades until it was disbanded in 1300 and the population was sold into slavery. Metcalfe is clear throughout the book about what there is evidence for, what different sources suggest, and where there is a need to make assumptions or guesses. Metcalfe does an excellent job of sharing the history of the establishment, structure, and end of Muslim communities from the 800s to 1300s in what came to be part of Italy today.

Key Quote, Information, or Chapter:

- The books explores the crossroads of Islam and Christianity, Europe and Africa

- The work of Michele Amari continues to be central to understanding the era

- June of 827 marks the beginning of conquest of Mazara from Ifriqiya, but it took a long time to fully conquer Sicily, and included Arabas, Slavs under the control of Arabs, troops from the Sudan and south in Africa, Berbers from Andalusia, Cretan Muslims, and others.

- Palermo was fully taken over, the last Christian institution was a small monastery outside the city walls.

- Muslims were involved politically all the way into Naples, the Amalfi Coast, and Benevento. There was even an amir established in Bari for a short period of time on the east coast from 847 - 871

- Muslims were often referred to as Saracen’s - a reference to the wife of Abraham, Sarah.

- First amir of Bari - Khalfun al-Barbari - Khalfun the Berber

- Second amir of Bari - al-Mufarraj bin Sallam, who was killed by his soldiers for unknown reasons

- Last amir of Bari - Sawdan al-Mawri - the Moor, was likely African

- After the fall of Bari, the Aghlabids appointed a governor of Sicily and one of “the Big Land,” leading to a 12 month seigh or Salerno, which was not successful.

- Qal’a(t) - “fort of” → Calta - often followed by names, which were domains of rule

- Berber tribal names can be found in Sicilian toponyms

- This is also part of the evidence for the presence of Ibaldi Muslims in Sicily via the Berbers that came to Sicily, although the use of Berber words is minimal.

- When Shiite Fatimid rule began, Sicily and Ifriqiya still have Sunni Maliki jurists that impacted politics and culture.

- In the 960s the Fatimids led re-settlement campaigns to bring Muslims into areas that were Christian strongholds such in Val Demone, such as Taormina.

- Ahmed, the ta’yid al dawla (Support of the State), appointed by al-Hakim, the Fatimid leader in Egypt, during the tai’fa period, led campaigns against Christian towns that had become too autonomous or weren’t paying tribute.

- Norman invasion, from Arabic sources, appeared to come out of nowhere, and the issue of who the Normans are, where they were from, etc is a bit complicated, the first wave was mostly ethnic Normans from Normandy, but that changed over time.

- As Roger I took control of Sicily, Ifriqiya was in disarray, with the Zirids breaking away from the Fatimids in favor of the Abbasids and being attacked by the Banu Hilal

- The full Norman occupation took 30 years to complete, and was often aided by Muslim allies in Sicily, namely Ibn al-Thumna

- Ibn al-Hawwas was a key leader in the center of the island, but was killed in battle against Zirids from Ifriqiya

- Some of the battles were brutal - in Zotica (Judica), the town was destroyed, men were all killed, and women were sold into slavery in Calabria

- Muslim leaders of Butera were also sent to Calabria, which had a small existing Muslim population, most of these people assimilated or converted in Calabria

- The Christian church had lost footing during the Muslim rule of Sicily, and the Normans granted large lands to the church, including those with Muslim communities on them

- Example of state of Christianity during Muslim rule - in western Sicily, there was one Greek archbishop located outside the city (near present day Monreale)

- The famous Sant’Agata in Catania was established the year after Muslims were defeated there

- Records of who paid the jizya tax, including those exempt under Islamic law were used and continued after Norman conquest.

- Countess Adelaide was the regent until Roger II took power as king. She continued the push toward Christianity - with her connections to Genoa, she invited many from the mainlands to settle in Sicily, which is the origins of the string of Gallo-Italic towns west of Catania, and there is evidence of Muslims leaving Sicily at this time toward Ifriqiya or to al-Andalus

- Despite this, Muslims still have a prominent role in Sicily, or converted, and most places were still majority Muslim, including Messina, and of course, Palermo

- From the start Muslims and converts played important administrative roles - George of Antioch was named the amir in 1125, also was the chief minister (wazir) until his death in 1151 - he had held administrative roles in Ifriqiya, and fled Ifriqiya due to conflict, hence holding both connection and contention with Ifriqiya

- The Martorana is not only established by George, but was important to both Greek Christians and Arab Christians

- It was visited by Ibn Jubayr during Christmas of 1184, and highly praised both for its beauty and the modesty of the Eastern rite Christians

- George’s role as the lead of the diwans was significant and stabilizing as the Norman kingdom was established

- Among the other important administrators and qadis, many were from the Banu Raja kin group, such as Abu I-daw’

- In the century after the fall of Muslim Sicily, over 50 Latin abbeys were found across 9 large dioceses, meaning the vast majority of Muslims lived on crown lands or those of a Latin-rite church - Monreale would come to cause the most conflict in the future.

- The end of the Norman period is sometimes named as the death of William II in 1189, or with the death of Frederick II, although he had inherited the throne through his German family, or it could be extended as a period through the Wars of the Sicilian Vespers which coincided with the end of the Muslim colony of Lucera on the mainland. Either way, the role of Muslims diminished and became more hostile over time

- Roger II continued much of what had been established under Muslim rule, but by the time he had consolidated power, there had not been an island wide authority in nearly 100 years (the last years of Muslim rule were clouded by regional conflict, and the Normans took several decades to fully conquer the island

- Roger II and his administrators issued several edicts early on that allowed Muslims to effectively govern themselves in most ways, and local shaykhs were depended on for governance

- Norman Sicily initially kept close ties to the Zirids in Ifriqiya and even defended them from the Banu Hammad, many from Ifriqiya came to Sicily during famine and war in North Africa

- This eventually led to the Norman taking control of parts of Ifriqiya, starting with Tripoli in 1146

- Although significant, this would not last very long for a variety of reasons

- First, the Almohad’s were expanding across the Maghrib, requiring a delicate balance of supporting local rulers and defending against the expansion

- Additionally, there was a major political fight that had significant implications for Muslims in Sicily - Philip of Mahdiyya, a palace eunuch, who knew Roger from a young age, as accused of apostasy - essentially, he was accused of continuing to be a Muslim and faking his conversion to Christianity - he was tried and executed in 1153

- The death was an example to other Muslims about power and importance - Philip was burned alive, in execution, and was a message in many ways that although Muslims in Ifriqiya were allowed to practice their faith without any retribution or hierarchy, it would not be the same in Sicily

- This tension continued into the reign of William I

- 1160s - Normans lost control of Ifriqiya, blame was placed on Muslims in the royal court, and Latin Nobles wanted more power

- Nobles, led by Simon and Tancred, ransacked the Norman Palace, and started a wave of violence and massacres of Muslims in Palermo, and burned records - the rebellion lost steam, but impacted Muslims across Sicily

- Palace eunuchs did play a big part in Muslim communities, especially as a contact with local Shaykhs

- Palace eunuchs typically had Arabic alamat - or signatures - that referenced Islam (even when they were nominally Christian)

- There are instances where eunuchs left the position and re-adopted Islam and Arab names - ext the qa’id Peter left to the Almohads, and changed his name to Ahmad al-Siqilli

- The story of the Muslims of Monreale are key to understanding the eventual deportation of many Muslims from Western Sicily

- Monreale’s land included Iato, Corleone, and Calatrasi, and Muslims were bound to these lands - and this area expanded over the time period of the late 1100s

- Muslims in these areas were led by Abu I’Qasim whose heredity traced back to the Banu I-Hammud, a tribal line from al-Andalus that claimed to trace itself back to the Prophet Muhammad

- Despite this heritage, and his claim that his position should be passed down, it is believed that some of his sons converted to Christianity, and there were benefits to converting, although it is not known how many people converted or the exact process

- This was all taking place in the midst of other changed and diverse peoples, including Greeks who didn’t follow the Latin Christian rites, Arab Christians, and Jews

- Several pages are dedicated to the Arab influence on culture, architecture, translation of classic books, education, etc.

- Back to Monreale, there are detailed records in Arabic and Greek of who was registered to the land and who was unregistered - Muslims had to by a jizya religious tax and a land tax (qanun)

- Muslims in Monreale had essentially become a source of expected revenue, leading to a Muslim revolt near 1200

- The revolt came during changes in the Norman dynasty and pressure from the Catholic church - leading to the Frederick II taking control - his relationship with Muslims was complex, but not as close or effective as Roger II, and reflected the continued decline of Muslim influence

- Muslims had consolidated under Ibn’Abbad and were fighting Frederick II’s army directly, especially in the mountainous areas of Western Sicily

- Ibn’Abbad was killed, and qa’id Maarzuq took over unsuccessfully

- Stories mention the daughter of Ibn’Abbad also being part of the leadership (which was unique)

- Muslims were given the option of recognizing the authority of Monreale, and follow the terms first laid out by William II

- When did this not work - Frederick II started deportations to Lucera, which Muslims somewhat agreed to because they would be allowed to continue their faith, this also coincided with resettling Christian rebels in Malta and ending protections for Muslims in Malta and Muslims in Malta were also sent to Lucera

- There was a final rebellion in 1243 of Muslims in the mountains, leading to more deportations

- Lucera was used as a tax base and Muslims were often drafted into military service

- They had qadis, jurists, and even some members that made the pilgrimage to Mecca

- Deportation led to declines in agriculture and life in Western Sicily, especially when paired with the Wars of the Sicilian Vespers in 1281 and 1302, and the arrival of the plague in the mid 1300s

- The population of Western Sicily would not fully recover from these three major events until the 1800s

-Lucera was disbanded in 1300

William II, presenting Monreale to Santa Maria - the establishment of Monreale would eventually lead to the deportation of a large number of Muslims connected to lands held under Monreale in Western Sicily. Photo by blog author.

Reflections of il Moro: 
There were two significant conclusions that I drew from Metcalfe’s work. First, the role of Admiral George of Antioch, who had previously worked in Ifriqiya, was significant and stabilizing. With knowledge of Muslim administration and culture, he was able to skillfully navigate the transition from Muslim rule to Norman rule in a way that allowed King Roger II to draw on the strengths of Muslims, Greeks, and Jews under his kingship. Much of the celebrated historical multicultural accomplishments come out of this time or are due to this foundation, and Admiral George’s role is under appreciated. The other important conclusion that was sad to realize was the history of Monreale as it relates to the deportation of Muslims and the destabilization of the Muslim community. Monreale is often portrayed as a great example of the fusion of cultures in Sicily, with elements of Fatimid design and Byzantine iconography in a Latin cathedral. However, the Muslims bound to the archbishop of Monreale never fully accepted the terms of the relationship. Although the Muslims and the agriculture of West Sicily were an enormous source of profit and taxes, it was also a source of rebellion. Muslim existence became less about an exchange of skills and culture, and more about a source of revenue, and later, when deported, a source for soldiers. A large portion of the population was deported in the 1200s due to this ongoing conflict. It is unclear how many may have converted or stayed by other means, although large areas, such as Iota and Corleone, were significantly depopulated as they were directly connected to Monreale. It is a hard reality to understand that Monreale is both an example of the cultures in Sicily and a source of the Latinization and end of Muslim culture in Sicily. Of course, this is not fully true, the culture lives on in the food, language, architecture, and DNA of the people, such are the contradictions of Sicily.

A few more photos from Monreale taken from my last trip there in Spring, 2025. Photos by blog author.

Book Review of "Where Three Worlds Met" by Sarah Davis-Secord

 

Summary: 
Sarah Davis-Secord uses a variety of sources, including legal court records, ship records, business records, and testimonies of the life of Christian saints to paint a picture of the time when Sicily was ruled via Byzantine Constantinople, the time of Muslim rule through Ifriqiya, and the time or Normans coming into power. The "three worlds" are Christians (the Byzantines, and then the Normans), Muslims (Arabs and Berbers via Ifriqiya/Tunisia), and Jewish people, who were heavily involved in trade throughout the Mediterranean. "Where Three Worlds Met," is incredibly well researched. Davis-Secord is clear when there is strong evidence and when there is limited evidence. She has painstakingly documented her sources, and is clear on her claims.

Key Quote, Information, or Chapter: 
There is so much detailed information in this book! Here are a few parts that stuck out to me:
- Sicilian-Arab coins, the quarter dinars, came to be used throughout the Mediterranean, and were replicated in Salerno. Davis-Secord suggests that this shows trade networks throughout the peninsula at a time when there were established networks with Ifriqiya, Cairo, and al-Andalus.
- When Normans started to come into Sicily, many Muslims stayed, many converted, and some also left. Some of those that left retained the nisba of "al-Siqilli" or "The Sicilian" indicated a long lineage of North Africans whose families were based in Sicily or came from Sicily.
- Although some of those of North African heritage fled Sicily, others were still immigrating to the island, as were some Jews because Tunisia was suffering from drought and food shortages.
- Ultimately, despite being a place of nexus, Sicily's centeredness gave way to Northern Italian merchant control, especially after Norman rule was established.
- The trade and exchange between these three worlds was extensive, there was constant cultural, economics, and political change over time. The population of the island increased significantly under Muslim rule, while still maintaining a strong Jewish population, and a continued Greek-Christian population.
- This really only scratches the surface of some of the later chapters, there is much more in the book!

Reflections of il Moro: 
This books gave me stronger insights into the development of Sicily moving from part of the the Greek East, ruled by Constantinople, and centered in Sircusa, to being a part of North Africa, with power and culture shifting toward Palermo, and then shifting toward Latin Europe with rule of the Normans, who were aligned (mostly) with the Pope. When reading of this history, you can see that the people of Sicily today are the decedents of Eastern peoples from Greece/Constantinople/Syria, and the decedents of Arabs and Berbers, with Arabic-speaking Jewish people in the mix as well. It is hard to believe that Sicily took such a strong swing toward Latin Christianity. The de-centralization of Sicily is also clear, as it fell into less importance, and started a trend of backwards progress. This continues later in history as a Spanish colony, and more recently as part of the Italian republic. This is likely why the Normans are so revered on the island (as is the history of the Muslims and Byzantines). The Normans were in many ways the last period of Sicilians prosperity, and the culmination of these three worlds. It is a shame that so much was lost to history. As the Sicilian-Arab folk character, Giufa, would say, "Alas!"

Book Review of "Narrating Muslim Sicily" by William Granara

 

Summary: 
"Narrating Muslim Sicily: War and Peace in the Medieval Mediterranean World" by William Granara looks at primary documents of Muslim writers (mostly legal scholars and poets) to make sense of the political and cultural landscape of Sicily over about 500 years right before, during, and after Muslim rule in Sicily. Granara has previously written extensively on the Sicilian Muslim, Ibn Hamdis, who grew up in Siracusa, and this book includes an in-depth analysis of his poetry, and other poetry by Muslim authors as a means to understand cultural and political forces during the time of Muslim rule. It concludes with describing the way these forces had a lasting impact into Norman rule and beyond.

 

Key Quote, Information or Chapter: 
This book is well organized with an in-depth overview of the start and end of Muslim rule, and in interpretation of complex forces that opened the doors to it, including how internal conflict both opened the doors to Muslim rule and to Muslim succession by the Normans.

Here is some of the key Sicilian history that is covered:
- It starts with identifying the source of much of recent Arab-Sicilian history research going back to Michele Amari (1806 - 1889), the author of "Biblioteca Arabo-Sicula," and "Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia" and looks at key sources of information, most from after the time of Muslim rule, including Ibn Hawqal, a traveler (973), Ibn al-Athir, historian (1233), al-Nuwayri, historian (1333), and Ibn Khaldun, historian (1406).
- Dar al-Islam (the Muslim world) had quickly expanded across Ifriqiya (North Africa) right across from Sicily. Asad ibn al-Furat from the Aghlabid Dynasty led the charge into Sicily in the 800, first landing in Mazara. The Aghlabid Dynasty was in charge from 827 - 909 under Ziyadat-allah leadership from Tunisia. As more Muslims came into Sicily, there was a distinct split between Arab Muslims, who were mostly centered in Palermo and North African Berbers (Amazigh).
- In 909, the Fatimids come into power, they are Shi'ites (where most Muslims in Sicily at the time were Sunni), and centered in Cairo (a city founded by a Sicilian Muslim!). They were in power until 944. During this the Fatimid caliph, 'Ubayd Allah ruled through direct proxy. The governor of Sicily, al-Hasan ibn Ahmad ibn Abi Khinzir arrived in Mazara and was a Kutama Berber. al-Hasan's broth, 'Ali, was a regional governor of Agrigento. Sicilians reject the brother and elected Ahmed ibn Qurhub.
- This was not strictly a sectarian conflict, but was more about resisting the rule of North Africa.
- ibn Qurhub pledges support to the rising Abbasid caliph, al-Muqtadir, in Baghdad, in rebellion of the Fatimids, but the Berbers in Agrigento rebelled against this and re-aligned with the Fatimids.
- ibn Qurhub is excusted, and the Fatimids send Abu Sa'id Musa ibn Ahmad with the back up of Kutama Berbers to establish rule.
- It ultimately doesn't work as Agrigento rebels again, and in 937, there is a series of conflicts of near civil war and an attempt by the Byzantines to return to rule. This leads to a high death toll, emigration of Muslims from Sicily, conflict with North Africa and starvation.
- The Fatmids lose control, and the Kalbids rule from 944 - 1044, the Kalb Tribe achieved greater cohesion among the Muslims in Sicily. al-Hasan ibn 'Ali, from a line of Sicilian Muslims leads, and his son, al-Mu'izz takes over after.
- Trade opens up with the Fatimids in Cairo, Taromina, the last Christian stronghold, falls, and the Byzantines are defeated, leading to three peaceful decades.
- This was a period of strong scholarship in the tradition of Maliki law, Arabic language, and poetry.
- 998 - Instability begins as infightings grows after Abu al-Futuh is paralyzed due to illness
- 1036 - Sunni Sicilians organize to oppose Shi'ite Fatimids
- 1038 - Continued disunity and fighting, Byzantine pressure, and Normans moving through Southern Italy leads to warlords dividing the island
- Normans attempt to align with East Sicily and easily dismantle Muslim rule while the Fatimids were focused on island to the East and fighting the Zirids in North Africa
- Castogiovanni (Enna), Agrigento, and Noto are resisted and were Muslim strongholds, but the Normans were able to take over.

Reflections of il Moro: 
"Narrating Muslim Sicily" has a thoughtful ending of placing Federico II as both the "wonder of the world," and the ruler responsible for expelling Muslims. A multicultural "King of Sicily," "the Holy Roman Emperor," "the baptized Sultan," and "King of Jerusalem." He was a champion of Muslim intellect, Arab language, and Eastern customs, and a villain in the Sicilian-Arab Jesu and Guifa tales. The contradictions and blurred boarders of Federico II are similar to the history and present of Sicilia, a place that exist in the past and continues to define itself in the present. A place that has been part of Europe, part of the East, and part of Africa at different points. A Catholic island with elements Muslim burial rituals (vigil and burial soon after death) and Eastern traditions (like churches oriented toward Jerusalem, deep devotion to Mary and Saints, etc). A place were people still greet each other with "Assabinirica" from "As-salamu alaykum." All of these things co-exist and are true at the same time, it is what makes Sicilia Sicilia.