Summary:
Alex Metcalfe very purposely has titled this “The Muslims of Medieval Italy,” because it does not just include the conquering of Sicily by Muslims from Ifriqiya, but also includes excursions into Southern Italy, and details of the deportation of Muslims from Frederick II to Lucera in Southern Italy, where the Muslim colony of about 15000 existed for several decades until it was disbanded in 1300 and the population was sold into slavery. Metcalfe is clear throughout the book about what there is evidence for, what different sources suggest, and where there is a need to make assumptions or guesses. Metcalfe does an excellent job of sharing the history of the establishment, structure, and end of Muslim communities from the 800s to 1300s in what came to be part of Italy today.
Key Quote, Information, or Chapter:
- The books explores the crossroads of Islam and Christianity, Europe and Africa
- The work of Michele Amari continues to be central to understanding the era
- June of 827 marks the beginning of conquest of Mazara from Ifriqiya, but it took a long time to fully conquer Sicily, and included Arabas, Slavs under the control of Arabs, troops from the Sudan and south in Africa, Berbers from Andalusia, Cretan Muslims, and others.
- Palermo was fully taken over, the last Christian institution was a small monastery outside the city walls.
- Muslims were involved politically all the way into Naples, the Amalfi Coast, and Benevento. There was even an amir established in Bari for a short period of time on the east coast from 847 - 871
- Muslims were often referred to as Saracen’s - a reference to the wife of Abraham, Sarah.
- First amir of Bari - Khalfun al-Barbari - Khalfun the Berber
- Second amir of Bari - al-Mufarraj bin Sallam, who was killed by his soldiers for unknown reasons
- Last amir of Bari - Sawdan al-Mawri - the Moor, was likely African
- After the fall of Bari, the Aghlabids appointed a governor of Sicily and one of “the Big Land,” leading to a 12 month seigh or Salerno, which was not successful.
- Qal’a(t) - “fort of” → Calta - often followed by names, which were domains of rule
- Berber tribal names can be found in Sicilian toponyms
- This is also part of the evidence for the presence of Ibaldi Muslims in Sicily via the Berbers that came to Sicily, although the use of Berber words is minimal.
- When Shiite Fatimid rule began, Sicily and Ifriqiya still have Sunni Maliki jurists that impacted politics and culture.
- In the 960s the Fatimids led re-settlement campaigns to bring Muslims into areas that were Christian strongholds such in Val Demone, such as Taormina.
- Ahmed, the ta’yid al dawla (Support of the State), appointed by al-Hakim, the Fatimid leader in Egypt, during the tai’fa period, led campaigns against Christian towns that had become too autonomous or weren’t paying tribute.
- Norman invasion, from Arabic sources, appeared to come out of nowhere, and the issue of who the Normans are, where they were from, etc is a bit complicated, the first wave was mostly ethnic Normans from Normandy, but that changed over time.
- As Roger I took control of Sicily, Ifriqiya was in disarray, with the Zirids breaking away from the Fatimids in favor of the Abbasids and being attacked by the Banu Hilal
- The full Norman occupation took 30 years to complete, and was often aided by Muslim allies in Sicily, namely Ibn al-Thumna
- Ibn al-Hawwas was a key leader in the center of the island, but was killed in battle against Zirids from Ifriqiya
- Some of the battles were brutal - in Zotica (Judica), the town was destroyed, men were all killed, and women were sold into slavery in Calabria
- Muslim leaders of Butera were also sent to Calabria, which had a small existing Muslim population, most of these people assimilated or converted in Calabria
- The Christian church had lost footing during the Muslim rule of Sicily, and the Normans granted large lands to the church, including those with Muslim communities on them
- Example of state of Christianity during Muslim rule - in western Sicily, there was one Greek archbishop located outside the city (near present day Monreale)
- The famous Sant’Agata in Catania was established the year after Muslims were defeated there
- Records of who paid the jizya tax, including those exempt under Islamic law were used and continued after Norman conquest.
- Countess Adelaide was the regent until Roger II took power as king. She continued the push toward Christianity - with her connections to Genoa, she invited many from the mainlands to settle in Sicily, which is the origins of the string of Gallo-Italic towns west of Catania, and there is evidence of Muslims leaving Sicily at this time toward Ifriqiya or to al-Andalus
- Despite this, Muslims still have a prominent role in Sicily, or converted, and most places were still majority Muslim, including Messina, and of course, Palermo
- From the start Muslims and converts played important administrative roles - George of Antioch was named the amir in 1125, also was the chief minister (wazir) until his death in 1151 - he had held administrative roles in Ifriqiya, and fled Ifriqiya due to conflict, hence holding both connection and contention with Ifriqiya
- The Martorana is not only established by George, but was important to both Greek Christians and Arab Christians
- It was visited by Ibn Jubayr during Christmas of 1184, and highly praised both for its beauty and the modesty of the Eastern rite Christians
- George’s role as the lead of the diwans was significant and stabilizing as the Norman kingdom was established
- Among the other important administrators and qadis, many were from the Banu Raja kin group, such as Abu I-daw’
- In the century after the fall of Muslim Sicily, over 50 Latin abbeys were found across 9 large dioceses, meaning the vast majority of Muslims lived on crown lands or those of a Latin-rite church - Monreale would come to cause the most conflict in the future.
- The end of the Norman period is sometimes named as the death of William II in 1189, or with the death of Frederick II, although he had inherited the throne through his German family, or it could be extended as a period through the Wars of the Sicilian Vespers which coincided with the end of the Muslim colony of Lucera on the mainland. Either way, the role of Muslims diminished and became more hostile over time
- Roger II continued much of what had been established under Muslim rule, but by the time he had consolidated power, there had not been an island wide authority in nearly 100 years (the last years of Muslim rule were clouded by regional conflict, and the Normans took several decades to fully conquer the island
- Roger II and his administrators issued several edicts early on that allowed Muslims to effectively govern themselves in most ways, and local shaykhs were depended on for governance
- Norman Sicily initially kept close ties to the Zirids in Ifriqiya and even defended them from the Banu Hammad, many from Ifriqiya came to Sicily during famine and war in North Africa
- This eventually led to the Norman taking control of parts of Ifriqiya, starting with Tripoli in 1146
- Although significant, this would not last very long for a variety of reasons
- First, the Almohad’s were expanding across the Maghrib, requiring a delicate balance of supporting local rulers and defending against the expansion
- Additionally, there was a major political fight that had significant implications for Muslims in Sicily - Philip of Mahdiyya, a palace eunuch, who knew Roger from a young age, as accused of apostasy - essentially, he was accused of continuing to be a Muslim and faking his conversion to Christianity - he was tried and executed in 1153
- The death was an example to other Muslims about power and importance - Philip was burned alive, in execution, and was a message in many ways that although Muslims in Ifriqiya were allowed to practice their faith without any retribution or hierarchy, it would not be the same in Sicily
- This tension continued into the reign of William I
- 1160s - Normans lost control of Ifriqiya, blame was placed on Muslims in the royal court, and Latin Nobles wanted more power
- Nobles, led by Simon and Tancred, ransacked the Norman Palace, and started a wave of violence and massacres of Muslims in Palermo, and burned records - the rebellion lost steam, but impacted Muslims across Sicily
- Palace eunuchs did play a big part in Muslim communities, especially as a contact with local Shaykhs
- Palace eunuchs typically had Arabic alamat - or signatures - that referenced Islam (even when they were nominally Christian)
- There are instances where eunuchs left the position and re-adopted Islam and Arab names - ext the qa’id Peter left to the Almohads, and changed his name to Ahmad al-Siqilli
- The story of the Muslims of Monreale are key to understanding the eventual deportation of many Muslims from Western Sicily
- Monreale’s land included Iato, Corleone, and Calatrasi, and Muslims were bound to these lands - and this area expanded over the time period of the late 1100s
- Muslims in these areas were led by Abu I’Qasim whose heredity traced back to the Banu I-Hammud, a tribal line from al-Andalus that claimed to trace itself back to the Prophet Muhammad
- Despite this heritage, and his claim that his position should be passed down, it is believed that some of his sons converted to Christianity, and there were benefits to converting, although it is not known how many people converted or the exact process
- This was all taking place in the midst of other changed and diverse peoples, including Greeks who didn’t follow the Latin Christian rites, Arab Christians, and Jews
- Several pages are dedicated to the Arab influence on culture, architecture, translation of classic books, education, etc.
- Back to Monreale, there are detailed records in Arabic and Greek of who was registered to the land and who was unregistered - Muslims had to by a jizya religious tax and a land tax (qanun)
- Muslims in Monreale had essentially become a source of expected revenue, leading to a Muslim revolt near 1200
- The revolt came during changes in the Norman dynasty and pressure from the Catholic church - leading to the Frederick II taking control - his relationship with Muslims was complex, but not as close or effective as Roger II, and reflected the continued decline of Muslim influence
- Muslims had consolidated under Ibn’Abbad and were fighting Frederick II’s army directly, especially in the mountainous areas of Western Sicily
- Ibn’Abbad was killed, and qa’id Maarzuq took over unsuccessfully
- Stories mention the daughter of Ibn’Abbad also being part of the leadership (which was unique)
- Muslims were given the option of recognizing the authority of Monreale, and follow the terms first laid out by William II
- When did this not work - Frederick II started deportations to Lucera, which Muslims somewhat agreed to because they would be allowed to continue their faith, this also coincided with resettling Christian rebels in Malta and ending protections for Muslims in Malta and Muslims in Malta were also sent to Lucera
- There was a final rebellion in 1243 of Muslims in the mountains, leading to more deportations
- Lucera was used as a tax base and Muslims were often drafted into military service
- They had qadis, jurists, and even some members that made the pilgrimage to Mecca
- Deportation led to declines in agriculture and life in Western Sicily, especially when paired with the Wars of the Sicilian Vespers in 1281 and 1302, and the arrival of the plague in the mid 1300s
- The population of Western Sicily would not fully recover from these three major events until the 1800s
-Lucera was disbanded in 1300
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| William II, presenting Monreale to Santa Maria - the establishment of Monreale would eventually lead to the deportation of a large number of Muslims connected to lands held under Monreale in Western Sicily. Photo by blog author. |
Reflections of il Moro:
There were two significant conclusions that I drew from Metcalfe’s work. First, the role of Admiral George of Antioch, who had previously worked in Ifriqiya, was significant and stabilizing. With knowledge of Muslim administration and culture, he was able to skillfully navigate the transition from Muslim rule to Norman rule in a way that allowed King Roger II to draw on the strengths of Muslims, Greeks, and Jews under his kingship. Much of the celebrated historical multicultural accomplishments come out of this time or are due to this foundation, and Admiral George’s role is under appreciated. The other important conclusion that was sad to realize was the history of Monreale as it relates to the deportation of Muslims and the destabilization of the Muslim community. Monreale is often portrayed as a great example of the fusion of cultures in Sicily, with elements of Fatimid design and Byzantine iconography in a Latin cathedral. However, the Muslims bound to the archbishop of Monreale never fully accepted the terms of the relationship. Although the Muslims and the agriculture of West Sicily were an enormous source of profit and taxes, it was also a source of rebellion. Muslim existence became less about an exchange of skills and culture, and more about a source of revenue, and later, when deported, a source for soldiers. A large portion of the population was deported in the 1200s due to this ongoing conflict. It is unclear how many may have converted or stayed by other means, although large areas, such as Iota and Corleone, were significantly depopulated as they were directly connected to Monreale. It is a hard reality to understand that Monreale is both an example of the cultures in Sicily and a source of the Latinization and end of Muslim culture in Sicily. Of course, this is not fully true, the culture lives on in the food, language, architecture, and DNA of the people, such are the contradictions of Sicily.
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| A few more photos from Monreale taken from my last trip there in Spring, 2025. Photos by blog author. |
